The Medieval Peter Lombard (†1160) was the fountainhead of systematic theology in the Church’s Western tradition.  His Four Books of Sentences, or theological judgments, has likely been the most influential book of theology ever.

Through the 1500’s throughout Europe, to gain a doctorate one had to give a commentary on the Master’s Sentences.  Hence, every Medieval theologian of prominence wrote a commentary.  Over 1,700 such commentaries have survived through history.  Yet the Sentences were only translated into English in 2007, and are not easy to access in Latin online, till now.

Lombard’s work is devoutly pious, is a gateway to the earlier fathers, and, despite it containing some of the errors of his age, is historically aware and full of legitimate (and edifying), detailed theology, much more so in fact than many contemporary systematic theologies.

Our new webpage has translated the Sentences‘ detailed table of contents, with links provided, so you can see what is in the work.  We have also collected over 80 Sentence commentaries (almost all are in Latin), forming a corpus of the most prominent Medieval theologians and some of the most detailed theology across the theological gamut ever written in Church history.  The Reformed often resourced the Medievals, for good reasons.

For the commentaries of John Duns Scotus, Gregory of Rimini (a favorite of the Reformed), Martin Luther (yes, the Protestant reformer) and the reformed theologian Lambert Daneau, we have translated their detailed tables of contents and provided links.

Lombard’s Sentences, Commentaries on Them, etc.

Resources are also linked on the Lombard’s life, his theology and Sentences and their commentaries.  May this collection be helpful to you and others in further looking into and understanding our Lord’s things and the deveolopment of Christ’s Church.

Patrologia Graeca and Patrologia Latina are the standard, older, massive series of volumes of the writings of the early and medieval Church fathers, all online.  We have put them all on one webpage.  This webpage is the easiest and most convenient way to access and use them on the net.

As almost all the Greek writings have a Latin translation on the facing column, if you are able to learn and read Latin, you can read almost all the fathers throughout Church history.  The Reformed Orthodox regularly reference the fathers; here is where you can find them.

Many helpful links are provided, such as to where the series have been digitized and are fully searchable.  The indices on the page allow one to find for a topic of interest (whether theological, Scriptural, historical, etc.) all the places in the early and medieval Church where it is addressed, making this an invaluable resource.

The Fathers in Greek & Latin: Patrologia Graeca & Latina

If this page be a blessing to you, bless God through it.  “For of Him, and through Him, and to Him, are all things: to whom be glory forever.” (Rom. 11:36)

Where did the Reformed in her classical era agree and disagree with Aquinas?

In light of the resurgence of Protestant interest in Aquinas, this new webpage with an Intro is a large reference list, going through the whole gamut of theology, juxtaposing Aquinas with Reformed Orthodox theologians on each theological point, listing and documenting their agreements and then disagreements.

Contrary to a popular belief, the Reformed did disagree with Aquinas on aspects of his doctrine of God, the Trinity, Christ, Predestination and Natural Law, as well as about everything else.

Some Protestants reading Aquinas have begun to imbibe some of his Romanist doctrines.  Others, wholly write him off as a bad influence, and miss out on the tremendous profit that can be gleaned from him.

While we do not recommend that new Christians, or the uninformed, read Aquinas, yet Reformed theologians in the Post-Reformation critically appropriated Aquinas, benefiting from him where they could. This webpage lays it out in front of you, taking out the mystery.  If you have interest in beginning to read Aquinas, this is a great place to start.

You will learn A LOT of some of the most precious and detailed theology about our Lord, his Christ, and our salvation, nearly nowhere else to be easily found, just by reading through this page:

‘Where Reformed Orthodox Writers Agreed & Disagreed with Aquinas’

We have also collected resources ‘On the Reception of Aquinas in Church History’.

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“For inquire, I pray you, of the former age, and prepare yourself to the search of their fathers
(for we are but of yesterday and know nothing, because our days upon earth are a shadow).

Shall not they teach you and tell you, and utter words out of their heart?”

Job 8:8-11

With the rise of an emphasis on the local church, membership and the authority of elders, some have concluded that a church member needs permission from the elders to leave a church.  This was the teaching of congregationalism in contrast to presbyterianism during the puritan era.

This new page of resources with an Introduction argues from Scripture and nature the classic presbyterian position, that, while one ought always to serve the laws of charity, edification and good order, yet one may absent themselves from Church functions and the church itself due to moral and providential necessities, according to the Law of God, without permission from elders or necessarily giving them one’s reasons, and that letters of transfer (or other certificates), while useful, are not ultimately necessary.

As all things are to be done unto edification (1 Cor. 14:26), numerous puritans taught a person may leave one church for a more profitable church.  So far from the Church being instituted by the Lord as a destructive trap (2 Cor. 10:8; 13:10), Christ’s house is a free society for all those that walk uprightly serving their Lord.

One May Miss Services & Leave a Church due to Providence without Permission, & a Letter of Transfer is Not Necessary

The Lord comes before all, even in who we vote for in political elections.  His priorities ought to be our priorities.

Yet does this mean one should only vote for a Christian candidate “publicly committed to scriptural principles of civil government,” or not vote at all?  That is a main thesis of an RPCNA booklet, Christ Centered Voting.

Travis Fentiman, MDiv, the webmaster, has written 64 Theses on the Ethics of Civil Voting where he shows that the above limitation is contrary to Scripture and defends the due extent of God-glorifying voting according to the will of God for the purpose of making further reformation in our land.

Whatever your perspective is now, the theses will be challenging to you.  May iron sharpen iron and cause us to grow in the knowledge of the Lord’s things, that we may be faithful to Him even in the matter of voting.

On Voting

Archibald Alexander (1772–1851) is known for his warm, experimental Calvinism, being the first professor at Old Princeton Seminary and for being a father of early American presbyterianism.  Charles Hodge (1797–1878), a major theologian in his own right, was his student, and took down Alexander’s catechetical lectures on the first third of systematic theology in 1818.

Besides the inherent interest in Alexander’s thought, being a link between the old and new worlds, and what was being taught at Princeton Seminary for the formation of ministers from its inception, this book, in its clear and concise presentation, is a great recommendation for someone who wants to get into Christian doctrine or read a systematic theology for the first time.

Of specific interest is Alexander’s epistemology and apologetics, manifesting his Scottish common-sense realism.  The Foreward by Maurice Roberts and Introduction by James Garretson thoroughly contextualize this treasure of reformed history.  See also the podcast with Fentiman and Garretson at Reformed Forum.

Enjoy, and praise the Lord for the riches of his grace towards us!

Alexander, Archibald – God, Creation & Human Rebellion: Lecture Notes of Archibald Alexander from the Hand of Charles Hodge  (1818; RHB, 2019; RBO, 2023)  150 pp.  Foreward by Maurice Roberts; Intro by James Garretson

Happy Labor Day!  In celebration here are the references for Martin Luther’s 82 volumes of Works in English, some of which are fully online:

Martin Luther’s Works

Rejoice and be glad; these are days of thanksgiving!

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“Let all those that seek Thee rejoice and be glad in Thee: let such as love thy salvation say continually, ‘The Lord be magnified.'”

Ps. 40:16

We live in extraordinary times.  In the benevolent provision of God we have been able to compile a collection of more than 575 bible commentaries in English from early and medieval Church figures, around 64% of which are fully available online for free:

The Early & Medieval Church Fathers on Scripture

When RBO was started about 9 years ago, around a fifth of this was available.

The webpage is nearly endless in how far it allows you to search into the fathers on Scripture.  The page includes the latest and most comprenseive online indices of quotes on Scripture by the fathers, as well as nearly exhaustive, standard, scholarly works: (1) referring to further commentaries in Latin, and (2) providing the fathers’ citations of Scripture, at a few clicks of the button.

Persons and scholars with interest in Scriptural commentary, or the early and Medieval Christians, and everyone in between, will be elated.  Make your interested friends happy.

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“I am the Lord thy God…  open thy mouth wide, and I will fill it.”

Ps. 81:10

Many more great Bible commentaries have become fully available online in the last several years.

Only around 55% of our collection of over 2,200 Bible commentaries since the Reformation were previously online.  Now about 86% are fully online.  Not only have many more older reformed and puritan commentaries become available, but so have many newer, good commentaries as well:

Bible Commentaries

Enjoy the depths of God’s Word like never before, whether for personal interest, research or sermon preparation.  Let your friends and those who would be interested know.

We are experiencing blessings beyond any that world history has yet seen.  To God be the glory!

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“The Lord shall open unto thee his good treasure…”

Dt. 28:12

R.C.H. Lenski was an early-1900’s, conservative Lutheran minister and university professor.  His twelve volume, in-depth commentary on the New Testament, noted for its emphasis on Greek grammar, is not always easy to find, and is usually expensive.

Now, for the first time, it is fully online!

Lenski, Richard C.H. – Commentary on the New Testament, vol. 1 (Mt), 2 (Mk), 3 (Lk), 4 (Jn), 5 (Acts), 6 (Rom), 7 (1-2 Cor), 8 (Gal-Phil), 9 (Col-Phile), 10 (Heb-Jm), 11 (Pet-Jd), 12 (Rev)  (OH: Wartburg Press, 1935-1966)

“A conservative, very extensive and generally helpful exposition based upon an exegesis of the Greek text.  Arminian [actually Lutheran] in doctrine, maintains a rigid approach to Greek grammar, and follows an amillennial interpretation of eschatology.  Exceedingly helpful background material and abounds in good preaching values.” – Cyril Barber

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To come back to this commentary, see its permanent home on our page, ‘Older, Whole, New Testament Commentaries’.

Some persons say all of life is worship, and see no special significance for the Church’s public worship.  Others, often in reaction, hold worship to be only worship ordinances, such as prayer, reading Scripture and singing praise, whether publicly or privately.

Both are wrong, according to Scripture and reformed orthodoxy.  Worship, narrowly speaking, is an immediate honoring of God.  Keeping God’s commandments mediately honors God, and hence is worship.  All of life is worship insofar as worship naturally and Biblically includes anything done out of reference to God.

Reform yourself to the Word and carefully consider our new page of resources, and let them sink deep into your soul:

‘On the Definition of Worship’

Likewise, some of the most fundamental and helpful distinctions about worship, filling out what it is and its nature, have been nearly wholly lost today.  Peruse these new pages:

‘On Internal & External Worship’

‘Natural vs. Instituted Worship’

Yes, internal worship is more important than external, and natural more than instituted, according to nature, Scripture (see the many Bible verses on the webpages) and reformed orthodoxy.

If you thought you knew Westminster well, get indepth theological background to what Westminster does and does not say about this subject on the Natural vs. Instituted page:

‘WCF 21.1 & its Theological Context’

Drink deeply of the Lord’s theological teachings, lay hold of all the riches you can, and send them to your friends.

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“Worship God.”

Rev. 22:9

It is commonly thought the Westminster Confession prohibits all recreation on the Lord’s Day; many of the Westminster divines, however, allowed for some recreation.

While recreation is not a proper work of the Lord’s Day, yet there are instances where it may be necessary, consistent with the Lord’s Day, or conducive and beneficial to worship.  Travis Fentiman, MDiv, has written a new article demonstrating that Westminster, from its original historical intention, only necessarily prohibits needless worldly recreations on the Lord’s Day.

It appears as the Intro on our Recreation on the Lord’s Day page.

This in-depth article synthesizes many of the ethical and practical issues involved.  You will learn A LOT from it.  It answers, in a nuanced way, the practical questions so commonly asked: whether it is right on the Lord’s Day for a dad to play catch with his son in the yard with a football, or to make love to one’s spouse.

Take the time to come to a fuller and more integrated understanding of the Lord’s Day, and may it help you to rejoice in our Lord every week all the more!

Do you want to read God’s Word in one of the original languages of Scripture?

Never has it been easier to start on your own.  These new webpages of Hebrew and Greek grammars will readily start you on your way.

The pages are also very useful for intermediate and advanced learners.  If you are a pastor and would like a refresher, or can benefit by such in your sermon preparation, or if you are a writer or scholar and need to refer to reference grammars, the intermediate and advanced grammars on the webpages will be invaluable.  If you can’t find what you’re looking for in one, try another, or all of them.

May these resources be a blessing to you; remember that they are here, and share them with friends if they might use them.

Biblical & Rabbinic Hebrew Grammars & Readers

Ancient & New Testament Greek Grammars & Readers

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“Study to shew thyself approved unto God, a workman that needeth not to be ashamed, rightly dividing the word of truth.”

2 Tim. 2:15

Great news!  The magnum opus of Herman Bavinck (1854-1921), the Dutch reformed, neo-Calvinist theologian, Reformed Dogmatics, 4 vols. is now fully available, free online to be checked out at Internet Archive.

See Bavinck’s works at our Systematic Theologies page.

His in-depth treatments of each doctrine and interaction with much of Church history, including Reformed Orthodoxy, makes his set one of the most valuable for serious theology in the last few hundred years.  Price, nor being away from your library, is no longer a barrier.  It may be accessed and linked wherever the internet is found!

Is Paul’s injunction for women to cover their heads in worship binding today (1 Cor. 11:2-16)?

Most of the Reformed, the Scottish covenanters and the Westminster divines in the Reformation and puritan era said ‘No,’ that Paul’s ordinance was relative to his culture, which used this custom.

In the most detailed exegetical and theological treatment of this issue since that era, Travis Fentiman (MDiv, webmaster) argues that this view is conclusive from the Word of God, in his new book:

1 Corinthians – Head-Coverings are Not Perpetual & they were Hair-Buns, with or without Cloth Material: Proven  (RBO, 2022)  283 pp.

The book’s Intro and the Overview of the Argument following it will whet your desire to invest the time to look through the rest, from which you will reap many rewards.  To see how Corinthian women covered their heads, see the many pictures in the History section on pp. 188-98.

For a summary of the main points of the whole book, see the Summary Conclusions beginning on p. 258.  Here is the logical structure of the book’s main argument.  Every proposition is thoroughly proven in detail in the book:

1. All positive, instituted worship must be “expressly set down in Scripture” or “by good and necessary consequence… deduced” therefrom (Westminster Confession of Faith 1.6).

2. In Scripture head-coverings, or the lack thereof, bore a variety of contrary meanings and acceptability, or not, in worship.  Hence they were clearly cultural.

3. Head-coverings cannot be taught by pure-nature and have no intrinsic value for worshipping God.

4. Paul only uses the language of “dishonor,” “becometh,” “glory” and “custom” about head-coverings, which are all things of social decency, but do not reflect inherent sins.  As with head-coverings, Paul uses imperatives in 1 Cor. 7 about things not intrinsically sinful.

5. Some apostolic ordinances were circumstantially conditioned and mutable.

6. Universal moral reasons given for a practice, such as head-coverings, not eating creeping things (Lev. 11:41, 44), the holy kiss, foot-washing, etc. does not necessarily make it perpetual. A context is assumed and generals can only bind generally.

7. There is nothing in 1 Cor. 11 necessitating head-coverings to have a different meaning or use in worship than in society.

8. There is no necessary warrant Corinthian head-coverings were geographically or temporally universal in the apostolic churches; but if they were, this does not itself make an ordinance to be of positive religion, especially as the Greco-Roman culture (which head-coverings were appropriate to) was vast.

9. Part I’s survey of all the relevant Scriptural head-covering data (consider it for yourself) shows there is no express or good and necessary consequence from these texts that Corinthian head-coverings were a positive, perpetual rite of religion (WCF 21.1) beyond circumstances common to human society, ordered by nature’s light, Christian prudence and the Word’s general principles (WCF 1.6), which things may be culturally relative.

10. These things being the case, Paul’s statement that improper head-covering “dishonoreth her head,” (v. 5) must be, not prescriptive, but descriptive, as the case was in that society (which it was). Hence Paul’s natural and spiritual arguments are contingent on this de facto premise.  A change of the premise in a different culture where not covering is not dishonoring, changes the conclusion.

As the whole of the Lord’s Day is to be set apart unto the immediate service of the Lord and spiritual duties, apart from necessities, so Isa. 58:13-14 says that:

“If thou turn away thy foot from…  doing thy pleasure on my holy day…  Then shalt thou delight thyself in the Lord…”

Hence Westminster Confession, ch. 21, section 8, rightly forbids recreations on the Lord’s Day.  Finally, here is a webpage of puritan resources expounding this topic in detail.

It will also be noticed that many of the Westminster divines themselves, in consistency with their intention in the WCF, allow for necessary refreshments and recreations that energize one for, and are consistent with, holy exercises.  See especially the quotes by the puritan divine, George Walker.

Recreation on the Lord’s Day

As the Heidelberg Catechism (1563) is the most experiential, savory and devotional of the Reformation doctrinal standards, so are the commentaries and sermons on it.

We have collected over 40 of these works (about 30 of them are fully online), including study guides and devotionals, new and old alike.  If you could benefit from such a volume, or simply desire to look through them, you know where to go.  The most recommended volumes are marked with an asterisk.

Commentaries on the Heidelberg Catechism

Do you need a commentary on the Apostles’ Creed?  Here is over 35 of them from reformed history:

Commentaries on the Apostles’ Creed

One doctrinal topic that is discussed in such commentaries that is not so commonly treated of elsewhere is the Communion of Saints.  The communion of saints is not primarily conversing over a pot-luck with Christians, but entails our spiritual union and fellowship with the whole of Christ’s one Body, the Church, in heaven and on earth, in all places and all times.

On the Communion of the Saints

Enrich your understanding and enflame affections and desires for fellowship with fellow Christian believers, and be sure to check out the sections that:

The Communion of the Saints is Trans-Spatial & Trans-Temporal

Refresh yourself in the faith with this brief poem on the Apostles’ Creed by an English minister in 1640.

In this battling dialogue Satan shames and condemns the Christian, who rises up in spiritual warfare, taking faith in Christ and his Word at every point.  May your heart well-up with and abide in this living, conquering faith.

Johnson, Thomas – ‘Stand up to your Christian Belief: Combat between Satan Tempting & a Christian Triumphing in the Comfort of the Apostles’ Creed, a Poem’  (1640)  5 pp.

The Westminster Confession speaks of “the light of nature” in several places (WCF 1.1; 1.6; 10.4; 20.4; 21.1).  It says that men may frame their lives according to the light of nature, that some things in the worship of God and Church government are to be ordered by it and that some opinions and practices are contrary to the light of nature.  The light of nature also shows that there is a God and manifests his wisdom, goodness and power.

What exactly is the light of nature, and what does it include?

As may be expected, Westminster was drawing upon a whole body of literature before them which answered these questions in some detail.  16 theses delineating the extent and limits of the light of nature, and its relationship to the light of grace, has been newly translated from the early-1600’s, German, reformed divine, Henry Alting.

These propositions will be a fountain of truth and wisdom to you, if you consider them well.

Alting, Henry – ‘A Disputation on the Light of Nature’  trans. T. Fentiman  (1628; RBO, 2022)  2 pp.  16 theses