In addition to below, see James Dennison’s Reformed Confessions of the 16th and 17th Centuries Buy which has a number of confessions that contain material on the form of government and church discipline.
Some secondary sources and related items that include much otherwise inaccessible primary sources are also included below.
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Order of Contents
General
Geneva, Switzerland
Scotland
The Church of Scotland
The Secession Church
The Free Church of Scotland
The Free Church of Scotland (Continuing)
The Westminster Assembly
The English Presbyterians
The Irish Presbyterians
The Bohemian Church
The French Reformed Church
The Dutch Reformed Church
America
The American Presbyterian Church
The Presbyterian Church in America (PCA)
The American Dutch Church
The American German Reformed Church
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General
Ainslie, J.L. – The Doctrines of Ministerial Order in the Reformed Churches in the 16th and 17th Centuries Buy 1940
ed. Hall, David W. & Joseph H. Hall – Paradigms in Polity: Classic Readings in Reformed and Presbyterian Church Government (Eerdmans, 1994)
Heppe, Heinrich – ‘The Church’ 1861 37 pages, being ch. 27 of Reformed Dogmatics Buy pp. 657-694
Heppe’s work is an anthology of quotes arranged in systematic fashion from many of the leading reformed theologians of the 16th and 17th centuries. The first half of this chapter deals with more general theological issues regarding the church, but the second half covers some of the more detailed points. Many of these writers have not otherwise been translated into English.
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Geneva and Switzerland
Calvin, John
The Ecclesiastical Ordinances 1541
‘One reason John Calvin acceded to the request of the Genevan city government to return from Strassburg to Geneva was the agreement that a set of ordinances would be written to govern the church of Geneva. this was provided in 1541 and ratified by the Little Council. Thus was provided one of the first Reformed church orders.’ – editors of ‘Paradigms in Polity’
The Ecclesiastical Ordinances Buy 1561 in Paradigms in Polity, ed. Hall & Hall, pp. 140-155
‘While the 1561 Ecclesiastical Ordinance includes a large amount of the material included in the 1541 Ordinance, it is a new document that provides further insight and improvement over the one of 1541. For example, the 1561 work clearly indicates the congregation will have a part in the manner of electing ministers. Moreover, ministerial visitation, the manner in which elders should be elected and excommunicated, communion regulations, and, most interestingly, the manner of treatment given higher class Genevan citizens are all treated in this new document.’ – editors of ‘Paradigms in Polity’
The Genevan Company of Pastors and Genevan Civil Code
Calvin’s Ecclesiastical Advice Buy transl. Benjamin Farley, forward John H. Leith, 1991, 188 pages
Manetsch, Scott – Calvin’s Company of Pastors: Pastoral Care and the Emerging Reformed Church, 1536-1609 Buy 2012 448 pp.
Hughes, Philip E. – The Register of the Company of Pastors of Geneva in the Time of Calvin Buy 2004 396 pp.
Witte, John & Robert Kingdon – Sex, Marriage, and Family Life in John Calvin’s Geneva: Courtship, Engagement, and Marriage Buy 2005 544 pp.
Beza, Theodore
The Judgment of a most reverend and learned man from beyond the seas concerning a threefold order of bishops [‘one of God, another of men, and another of the Devil; the two latter must be plucked up, the former only must continue’], with a declaration of certain other weighty points concerning the discipline and government of the Church ToC 1585
The Ecclesiology of Theodore Beza Buy 1978
Wollebius, Johannes – Of the Outward Administration of the Church d. 1629 16 pp. being ch. 26 of his An Abridgment of Christian Divinity, pp. 214-230
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The Church of Scotland
The First Book of Discipline 1560
A Collection of Confessions of Faith, Catechisms, Directories, Books of Discipline, &c. Of Public Authority in the Church of Scotland, vol. 2 including, amongst other things:
‘A Short Sum of the Book of Discipline for the Instruction of Ministers and Readers in their Office’ n.d. p. 608
Knox, John – ‘The Form and Order of the Election and Admission of the Superintendent, which may serve in the Election of all Other Ministers’ 1560 p. 625
‘The Election of Elders and Deacons in the Church of Edinburgh’ 1569 p. 363
Knox, John & John Craig – ‘The Order and Doctrine of the General Fast’ 1565 p. 643
‘The Order of Excommunication and Public Repentance’ 1569 p. 701
The Second Book of Discipline 1578
Kirk, James – Patterns of Reform: Continuity and Change in the Reformation Kirk Buy 2000 512 pp.
‘Some think that Kirk in this work definitively settles the question of influence in the Scottish church in favor of a Calvin-Geneva influence rather than an Anglican-British sway.’ – David W. Hall
ed. Fleming, David H. – Register of the Minister, Elders, and Deacons of the Christian Congregation of St. Andrews: comprising the proceedings of the Kirk session and of the Court of the Superintendent of Fife, Fothrik, and Strathearn, 1559-1600, part 1 (1559-1582), Part 2 (1582-1600) 1889 570 pp. Publications of the Scottish History Society, vols. 4 & 7
Henderson, Alexander – The Government and Order of the Church of Scotland 1641
Rutherford, Samuel – A Defense of the Government of the Church of Scotland 1642
A Directory for Church Censures, to be examined against the Next General Assembly 1647
The Form of Process 1707
Morthland, Charles – An Account of the Government of the Church of Scotland as it is Established by Law and of the Discipline and Worship Presently Practiced by that Church 1708
Steuart of Pardovan, Walter – Collections and Observations Concerning the Worship, Discipline and Government of the Church of Scotland… (1709)
Edgar, Andrew – Old Church Life in Scotland: Lectures on Kirk Session and Presbytery Records, vols. 1, 2
The Table of Contents:
Volume 1
1. Churches, Manses and Churhyards in Olden Times
2. Public Worship in Olden Times
3. Communion Services in Olden Times
4-6. Church Discipline in Olden Times
Volume 2
1. Provision for the Poor in Olden Times
2. Provision for Education in Olden Times
3. Marriage in Olden Times
4. Baptisms and Burials in Olden Times
5. Ministers and Ministerial Life at Mauchline, 1650-55
6. Ministers and Ministerial Life at Mauchline, 1656-1800
Appendix – Burns’s Marriage
Extracts from Principal George Hill’s ‘View of the Constitution of the Church of Scotland’ 1818 23 pp. See here for the whole of Hill’s ‘View of the Constitution’ 155 pp. from Part II of his Theological Institutes
Edgar, Andrew – ‘The Discipline of the Church’ in ed. Story, Robert, The Church of Scotland, Past and Present, vol. 5 1890 ff.
Fleming, David Hay – The Discipline of the Reformation Part 1, Part 2, Part 3 Also in his Shorter Writings
Mair, William – A Digest of Laws & Decisions Ecclesiastical & Civil Relating to the Constitution, Practice & Affairs of the Church of Scotland, with Explanatory Notes & Forms of Procedure (Edinburgh: Blackwood & Sons, 1887) ToC
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Acts, Proceedings & Minutes of the Church of Scotland
On the interesting account of the stealing (by an Episcopalian) and destruction of the original edition of this work, see Johnston, Treasury, p. 294.
Acts and Proceedings of the General Assemblies of the Kirk of Scotland, vols. 1 (1560-1577), 2 (1578-1592), 3 (1593-1618) This HTML edition is searchable
The Intervening time between 1618 and 1638 were the dark days of the unlawful, imposed prelatical assemblies.
Records of the Kirk of Scotland, containing the Acts and Proceedings of the General Assemblies from the Year 1638 Downwards [to 1649], as authenticated by the Clerks of Assembly, with notes and historical illustrations, with documents of the Church till 1654, 696 pp. See here for a similar, but improved edition of this work.
Acts of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, 1638-1842 1843, 1280 pp.
The convenience of this volume is that the principle acts are abridged and organized alphabetically by topic. Also note the valuable material in the Appendix.
ed. Morren, N. – Annals of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, from the Final Secession in 1739 to the Origin of the Relief in 1752 1838 450 pp.
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Select Topical Acts
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The Resolutioners vs. the Protesters
The Scottish Resolutioner-Protester Controversy, 1650’s
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The Scottish Secession Church
Brown, John, of Hadddington – Letters on the Constitution, Government, and Discipline, of the Christian Church d. 1787
Brown was a theological professor of the Secession Church in Scotland.
Scott, David – Annals and Statistics of the Original Secession Church: till its Disruption and Union with the Free Church of Scotland in 1852, 1886, 612 pages
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The Free Church of Scotland (1843-2000)
Digests of Legislation
Forbes, Robert – Digest of Rules and Procedure in the Inferior Courts of the Free Church of Scotland, with an appendix embracing a ministerial manual, and also containing forms and documents 1856 1st edition, see here for the 3rd edition 1869, 321 pp.
This work was intended to provide for the Free Church what George Hill had provided for the Church of Scotland (see above) before the Disruption of 1843.
The Practice of the Free Church of Scotland in her Several Courts Fourth edition, 1886
‘The Practice’, or ‘Blue Book’, is what would normally be considered the Free Church of Scotland’s book of Church order, except that it is not binding. It is only a summary of legislation. The legislation is the only thing that is binding.
Acts, Proceedings, and Minutes
Proceedings of the General Assembly of the Free Church of Scotland, 1843 266 pp. This edition has a table of contents. This edition has a sketch of the proceedings of the residual assembly on p. 188-245
This is an account of the entire proceedings of the immediate General Assembly of the Free Church after the Disruption.
Ewing, W. – Annals of the Free Church of Scotland, 1843-1900, 2 vols., 1914
The Principal Acts of the General Assembly of the Free Church of Scotland, 1900-1909
The Principal Acts of the General Assembly of the Free Church of Scotland, 1900-2000 HTML
Constitutional Matters
Begg, James – Memorial with the Opinions of Eminent Counsel in Regard to the Constitution of the Free Church of Scotland and Remarks on our Present State and Prospects 1874 264 pp.
This volume gives special attention to the Establishment Principle in regards to possible union with other churches.
The Church in Relation to its Constitution, 2006, 12 pages
Isbell describes the European understanding of a constitution and argues that a church’s constitution is inviolable and cannot be changed.
Records
Scott, David – Annals and Statistics of the Original Secession Church: till its Disruption and Union with the Free Church of Scotland in 1852, 1886, 612 pages
Instructive and Theolgical
General Assembly – Catechism of the Principles and Constitution of the Free Church of Scotland 162 pp.
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The Free Church of Scotland (Continuing) 2000-present
The Practice of the Free Church of Scotland in her Several Courts eighth edition, 1995 See here for the 4th edition from 1886.
‘The Practice’, or ‘Blue Book’, is what would normally be considered the Free Church of Scotland’s book of Church order, except that it is not binding. It is only a summary of legislation. The legislation is the only thing that is binding.
The Principal Acts of the General Assembly of the Free Church of Scotland (Continuing), 2000-Present HTML
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The Westminster Assembly
The Form of Presbyterial Church Government
The Humble Advice of the Assembly Concerning Church Government
This contains a section on Discipline and Excommunication (in the middle of the work) not found in the Form of Presbyterian Church Government.
This work is different from the From of Presbyterial Church Government and contains many more details not found therein. For the significance of this work, see an introduction to it by Andrew Myers.
The Directory of the Public Worship of God
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The Minutes of the Westminster Assembly
The Minutes of the Westminster Assembly
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The English Presbyterians
Travers, Walter
A Full and Plain Declaration of Ecclesiastical discipline out of the Word of God and of the Declining of the Church off England from the same Ref 1574
A Brief and Plain Declaration concerning the Desires of all those Faithful Ministers that have and do seek for the discipline and Reformation of the Church of England, which may serve for a just apology against the false accusations and slanders of their adversaries 1584 also attributed to Dudley Fenner & William Fulke
A Defense of the Ecclesiastical Discipline ordained of God to be used in his Church, against a reply of Master [John] Bridges, to a brief and plain declaration of it, which was printed in 1584, which reply he terms, ‘A defense of the governement established in the Church of England for ecclesiastical matters’ ToC 1588
Cartwright, Thomas
The Rest of the Second Reply of Thomas Cartwright against Master Doctor Whitgift’s Second Answer, touching the Church Discipline ToC 1577
A Directory of Church Government 1585
“Cartwright’s ‘Directory’ is built upon the earlier ‘Directory’ by Walter Travers (1574). At the time Cartwright was arrested in 1585, he was carrying a copy of it. All original Latin copies were destroyed, but a few copies in English survived. This (specifically, a copy found in Cartwright’s study) was reprinted for Parliament and the Westminster Assembly in 1644 and was used by Alexander Henderson as the model for the 1645 ‘Westminster Directory of Public Worship’ and the companion ‘Directory and Form of Church Government’.” – Andrew Myers
ed. Usher, Roland G. – The Presbyterian Movement in the Reign of Queen Elizabeth as Illustrated by the Minute Book of the Dedham Classis, 1582-1589 (London, 1905)
Udall, John d. 1592
Stoughton, William – An Assertion for true and Christian Church Policy, wherein certain politic objections made against the planting of pastors and elders in every congregation are sufficiently answered, and wherein also sundry projects are set down, how the discipline by pastors and elders may be planted without any derogation to the King’s royal prerogative, any indignity to the three estates in Parliament, or any greater alteration of the laudable laws, statutes, or customs of the realm, then may well be made without damage to the people ToC 1604
Mawdesley, James – Clerical politics in Lancashire and Cheshire during the reign of Charles I, 1625-1649 PhD thesis (University of Sheffield, 2014) Ref
London Ministers – The Divine Right of Church Government originally 1646, this edition 1844
Some of the appendices to this edition are not original, but were inserted by the editors (from John Brown of Haddington, etc.) For the first edition, see the volume published by Naphtali Press.
The Register Booke of the Fourth Classis in the Province of London 1646-59 Ref Review
“During the English Civil War, Presbyterian ministers and church councils were established in Londons churches. These people had to be proposed and vetted (to ensure that they were sympathetic with the new government). Furthermore, they had to be seen to be promoting the new government in their sermons, and giving thanks and blessings for the various victories of the time.
This book contains transcripts of the proposals for the new ministers and church councils of each of those churches, plus the records of their support for the government, and letters relating to the lack of the right words being used in their sermons.”
Materials for an account of the Provincial Synod of the County of Lancaster, 1646-1660 William Arthur Shaw (Manchester Press Co., 1890) Ref printed privately; limited.
Minutes of the Manchester Presbyterian Classis [1646-1660], Part 1, Part 2, Part 3 ed. William A. Shaw Chetham Society, vols. 20, 22 & 24
Minutes of the Bury Presbyterian Classis, 1647-1657, Part 1, Part 2 ed. William A. Shaw Chetham Society, vols. 36 & 41 (1896/98)
Love, Christopher – The Main Points of Church-Government and Discipline: plainly and modestly handled by way of question and answer ToC 1649
Burgess, Cornelius – Reasons showing the necessity of reformation of the public 1. doctrine, 2. worship, 3. rites and ceremonies, 4. church-government, and discipline, reputed to be (but indeed, not) established by law. Humbly offered to the serious consideration of this present Parliament, by divers ministers of sundry counties in England ToC 1660
Baxter, Richard – Two Papers of Proposals concerning the discipline and ceremonies of the Church of England humbly presented to His Majesty by the Reverend ministers of the Presbyterian persuasion 1661
Baxter was more properly an Independent, though sometimes Independents took on the name ‘presbyterian’ as they believed in rule by presbyters at the local level. This would especially be the case after the imposition of episcopacy in 1660.
Hall, Archibald – An Humble Attempt to Exhibit a Scriptural View of the Constitution, Order, Discipline, and Fellowship of the Gospel-church 1795
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The Irish Presbyterians
Records of the General Synod of Ulster, from 1691 to 1820, vols. 1 (1691-1720) , 2 (1721-1777), 3 (1778-1820)
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The Bohemian Church
Comenius, Johann Amos – An Exhortation of the Churches of Bohemia to the Church of England, wherein is set forth the good of unity, order, discipline, and obedience in churches rightly now [constituted], or to be constituted, with a description premised of the order and discipline used in the churches of the Brethren of Bohemia ToC 1661
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The French Church
de Loque, Bartrand – An excellent and plain discourse of the church, whereby the godly may know and discern the true Church, from the Romish Church, and all other false and counterfeit churches, as well for matters of doctrine, as discipline, etc., written in French by M. Bartrand de Loque, a godlie minister of Dolphenine ToC 1585
National Synod – The General and Particular Acts and Articles of the late National Synod of the Reformed Churches of France… beginning the 26th of December, 1644, where by the present estate of those churches, as also their doctrine and discipline may be known ToC 1645
de Larroque, Matthieu – Conformity of the Ecclesiastical Discipline of the Reformed Churches of France with that of the Primitive Christians ToC 1691
Quick, John – Synodicon in Gallia Reformata, or, the Acts, Decisions, Decrees, and Canons of thouse famous National Councils of the Reformed Churches in France, vols. 1, 2 1692
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The Dutch Church
DeRidder, Richard, ed. – The Church Orders of the Sixteenth Century Reformed Churches of the Netherlands Together with Their Social, Political, and Ecclesiastical Context Buy Trans. Richard R. DeRidder with the assistance of Peter H. Jonker and Rev. Leonard Verduin (Calvin Theological Seminary, 1987) Ref
The Kirk Orders before Dort 31 Church Orders in Dutch.
See generally Select Documents for the Reformation and the Revolt of the Low Countries, 1555-1609 48 various documents from this time period, of which several relevant ones are linked below
Select Articles from the Assembly at Wesel 1571 12 paragraphs
Select Acts from the Synod of Dordrecht 1574
This Synod of Dort was an important regional assembly in its day, to be distinguished from the national Synod of Dort with international delegates in 1618-19.
Ecclesiastical Ordinances drafted by Order of the States of Holland, 1576
The Reformed Classis in Action: Flanders, 1578-1582 23 paragraphs
Select Acts from the Synod of Middelburg, 1581 13 paragraphs
A Visitation of the Reformed Churches in the Classis of Dordrecht 1589 30 paragraphs
Apollonius, Willhelm –A Consideration of Certain Controversies at this Time Agitated in the Kingdom of England Concerning the Government of the Church of God, written at the command and appointment of the Walachrian Calssis 1645 151 pp.
A copy of this Dutch presbyterian work, addressing matters of church polity and discipline, was given to every Westminster Divine and was highly praised by the Scot Robert Baillie.
Demarest, David – History and Characteristics of the Reformed Protestant Dutch Church 1856 especially chs. 7 & 8 on ‘Liturgy, Customs and Usages’ and ‘Government and Discipline’
The Church Order Commentary Buy 1941 385 pp.
This is a thorough commentary on the church order of the Christian Reformed Church.
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The American Presbyterian Church
Constitutional Histories
Hodge, Charles – The Constitutional History of the Presbyterian Church in America, vols. 1 (1705-1741), 2 (1741-1788)
Smith, Morton – How is the Gold Become Dim: The Decline of the Presbyterian Church, U.S., as Reflected in its Assembly Actions Buy 1973 452 pp.
Smith chronicles the constitutional decline of the PCUS (the Southern half of the Presbyterian Church) from its founding till the secession of the PCA in 1973.
Table of Contents:
1. The Historic Position of the Presbyterian Church in the United States
2. Departures from the Historic Position on Scripture
3. Departures from the Historic Position on Confession and Catechisms – Doctrinal Subscription
4. Departures from the Historic Position on the Confession and Catechisms – Changes Enacted
5. Departures form the Historic Position on Church Government
6. The Decline of the Presbyterian Church in the United States as Reflected in its Exercise of Discipline
7. The Decline of Worship of God in the Presbyterian Church of the United States
8. The Decline as Reflected in the Relations to Other Church Bodies
9. Departures from the Spiritual Mission of the Church as Seen in the Social and Political Actions of the Assemblies
10. The State of the Church in 1970 as Described by the General Assembly Itself
11. Whither? Some Concluding Observations and Postscripts
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A Collection of Resources
PCA Historical Center – ‘The Historical Development of the Book of Church Order: Articles & Books on Church Polity’ A bibliography of 70+ resources, with numerous links.
This collection is centered around American presbyterianism, both North and South, from its inception up through the PCA. At the bottom there is a significant section on works relating to Deacons in American presbyterianism.
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Books of Order & Discipline
The Draught was the draft form of the Book of Discipline that was adopted in 1788 (which is not on the internet). The Book of Discipline adopted in 1788 was the original form of discipline of the national denomination of Presbyterians in America, from which all American branches of presbyterianism derive.
(Note that denominations such as Reformed Presbyterians, the Associate Reformed Presbyterians, the Dutch American Reformed Denominations, and others, whose backgrounds are from other nationalities, did not descend from this Order of Discipline and Worship.)
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Digests of Legislation
‘The General Assembly first ordered its clerk to prepare a digest in 1809. After nearly a decade of procrastination the 1818 General Assembly appointed a committee, chaired by Dr. Jacob Janeway [an Old School Presbyterian]. Reporting back two years later in 1820, the General Assembly authorized this digest.’
McFalls, Thaddeus & Byron Sunderland – Manual of Presbyterian Law and Usage embracing established and recognized Ecclesiastical and Parliamentary Rules and Regulations for the Guidance of Congregations and Church Courts in all Processes and Proceedings under the Constitution and Form of Government of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America 1878 360 pp.
Hodge, J. Aspinwall – What is Presbyterian Law as Defined by the Church Courts? 1882 616 pp.
This is a digest of the important legislation of the Presbyterian Church.
Leslie, J.D. – Presbyterian Law and Procedure in the Presbyterian Church in the United States Buy 1930 411 pp.
A Digest of the Acts and Proceedings of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States, 1861-1965 Buy 489 pp.
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Instructional & Theological Works
Smyth, Thomas – An Ecclesiastical Catechism 1843
Smyth was an elder at 2nd Presbyterian Church in Charleston, South Carolina. This catechism gets into some of the fine points of church polity, albeit from Smyth’s viewpoint, which was similar to that of Charles Hodge in the North.
Robinson, Stuart – The Church of God as an Essential Element of the Gospel, and the Idea, Structure and Functions Thereof, with an Appendix containing the more important symbols of Presbyterian Church Government, Historically arranged and Illustrated Buy 1858 228 pp.
McGill, Alexander – Church Government, a Treatise compiled from his Lectures in Theological Seminaries 1888 572 pp.
‘An additional stalwart text for polity courses, which was a long standing resource at the turn of the century…’ – David W. Hall
Ramsey, F.P. – An Exposition of the Form of Government and the Rules of Discipline of the Presbyterian Church in the United States 1898
‘…was also considered a classic exposition of Southern Presbyterian polity.’ – David W. Hall
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Minutes
Klett, Guy – Minutes of the Presbyterian Church in America 1706-1788 Buy (Presbyterian Historical Society, 1976)
‘Professor Guy S. Klett… for nearly three decades, updated and reissued the earliest Minutes from the American Presbyterian church courts. With the issue of this volume (1976) Klett provided an invaluable primary resource into the history and polity of the American Presbyterian Church. This volume contains the Minutes of the first Presbytery covering from 1706 through 1716, also including the Minutes of the Synods from 1717 till 1788, up to the formation of the first General Assembly. Appended to this volume is a Letter Book (which contains attached letters referred to in the body of the Minutes) and an excellent index.’ – editors of Paradigms in Polity
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Records
Beecher, Willis – Index of Presbyterian Ministers, containing the names of all the ministers of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America, with references to the pages on which those names are found in its records and minutes, from A.D. 1706-1881 1883 616 pp.
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Website
The Presbyterian Historical Society: The National Archives of the PC(USA)
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The Presbyterian Church in America (PCA) since 1973
Minutes of the PCA, 1973-2016 HTML
PCA Position Papers HTML, organized alphabetically by topic
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The American Dutch Church
Ecclesiastical Records compiled by the State of New York [relating to the American Dutch Church], vols. 1 (1621-1680), 2 (1680-170), 3 (1701-1725), 4 (1725-1750), 5 (1751-1760), 6 (1761-1810), 7 (Index)
Articles Explanatory of the Government and Discipline of the Reformed Dutch Church in the United States of America 1798, 27 pages, being the appendix to The Psalms of David, with hymns and spiritual songs : also, the catechism, confession of faith, and liturgy of the Reformed Church in the Netherlands ; for the use of the Reformed Dutch Church in North America ; with an appendix, containing, Articles explanatory of the government and discipline of the Reformed Dutch Church in the United States of America
Corwin, Edward – A Digest of Constitutional and Synodical Legislation of the Reformed Church in America, formerly the Reformed Protestant Dutch Church, prepared by the order of General Synod 1906
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The American German Reformed Church
Minutes and letters of the Coetus of the German Reformed Congregations in Pennsylvania, 1747-1792 1903 498 pp.
The Constitution of the German Reformed Church in the United States of America, 1846 46 pp.
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Related Pages
Independent Churches do not have the Authority for Greater Excommunication