“And the Lord God formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living soul.”
Geb. 2:7
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Subsections
When Soul is Joined to Body in the Womb
Body-Soul Relationship
Free Choice
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Order of Contents
Articles 8+
Hylemorphism 2
Intellect & Will 4
Sense & Affections 6+
Soul’s Immortality 6+
Latin 3
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Articles
Medieval Church
Aquinas, Thomas – Contra Gentiles, bk. 2, Creation
46. That the perfection of the universe required the existence of some intellectual creatures
47. That intellectual substances are endowed with will
48. That intellectual substances have freedom of choice in acting
49. That the intellectual substance is not a body
50. That intellectual substances are immaterial
51. That the intellectual substance is not a material form
52. That in created intellectual substances, being and what is differ
53. That in created intellectual substances there is act and potentiality
54. That the composition of substance and being is not the same as the composition of matter and form
55. That intellectual substances are incorruptible
56. In what way an intellectual substance can be united to the body
57. The position of Plato concerning the union of the intellectual soul with the body
58. That in man there are not three souls, nutritive, sensitive, and intellective
59. That man’s possible intellect is not a separate substance
60. That man derives his specific nature, not from the passive, but from the possible, intellect
61. That this theory is contrary to the teaching of Aristotle
62. Against Alexander’s opinion concerning the possible intellect
63. That the soul is not a temperament, as Galen maintained
64. That the soul is not a harmony
65. That the soul is not a body
66. Against those who maintain that intellect and sense we the same
67. Against those who hold that the possible intellect is the imagination
68. How an intellectual substance can be the form of the body
69. Solution of the arguments advanced above in order to show that an intellectual substance cannot be united to the body as its form
70. That according to the words of Aristotle the intellect must be said to be united to the body as its form
71. That the soul is united to the body without intermediation
72. That the whole soul is in the whole body and in each of its parts
73. That there is not one possible intellect in all men
74. Concerning the theory of Avicenna, who said that intelligible forms are not preserved in the possible intellect
75. Solution of the seemingly demonstrative arguments for the unity of the possible intellect
76. That the agent intellect is not a separate substance, but part of the soul
77. That it is not impossible for the possible and agent intellect to exist together in the one substance of the soul
78. That Aristotle held not that the agent intellect is a separate substance, but that it is a part of the soul
79. That the human soul does not perish when the body is corrupted
80. Arguments to prove that the corruption of the body entails that of the soul [and their solution]
81. Continued
82. That the souls of brute animals are not immortal
83. That the human soul begins to exist when the body does
84. Solution of the preceding arguments
85. That the soul is not made of God’s substance
86. That the human soul is not transmitted with the semen
87. That the human soul is brought into being through the creative action of God
88. Arguments designed to prove that the human soul is formed from the semen
89. Solution of the preceding arguments
90. That an intellectual substance is united only to a human body as its form
91. That there are some intellectual substances which are not united to bodies [i.e. angels]
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94. That the separate substance [angels] and the soul are not of the same species
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1500’s
Bullinger, Henry – 10th Sermon, ‘Of the Reasonable Soul of Man; and of his most certain salvation after the death of his body’ in The Decades ed. Thomas Harding (1549; Cambridge: Parker Society, 1850), vol. 3, 4th Decade, pp. 365-408
Calvin, John – 15. ‘State in which man was created. The faculties of the Soul—The Image of God—Free Will—Original Righteousness’ in Institutes of the Christian Religion tr. Henry Beveridge (1559; Edinburgh: Calvin Translation Society, 1845), vol. 1, bk. 1, pp. 214-30
Vermigli, Peter Martyr – ‘Of the Soul’ in 13. ‘Of the Creation of All Things’ in The Common Places… (d. 1562; London: Henrie Denham et al., 1583), pt. 1, pp. 121-23
Musculus, Wolfgang – ‘Of the Soul’ in Common Places of the Christian Religion (1560; London, 1563), folio 12.b
Beza, Theodore, Anthony Faius & Students – 15. ‘Of the Faculties of the Soul of Man’ in Propositions & Principles of Divinity Propounded & Disputed in the University of Geneva by Certain Students of Divinity there, under Mr. Theodore Beza & Mr. Anthony Faius… (Edinburgh: Waldegrave, 1591), pp. 33-35
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1600’s
Leigh, Edward – 14. ‘The Sanctification of the Whole Soul & Body’ in A System or Body of Divinity… (London, A.M., 1654), bk. 7, pp. 540-42
Turretin, Francis – Institutes of Elenctic Theology, tr. George M. Giger, ed. James Dennison Jr. (1679–1685; P&R, 1992), vol. 1
5th Topic, 14. ‘Is the soul immortal in virtue of its intrinsic construction? We affirm.’ 482
9th Topic, 11. ‘Whether original sin has corrupted the very essence of the soul. Also whether it is a mere privation or a certain positive quality too.’ 636
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1700’s
à Brakel, Wilhelmus – ch. 10, ‘Concerning Man, Particularly the Soul’ in The Christian’s Reasonable Service, vols. 1 ed. Joel Beeke, trans. Bartel Elshout Buy (1700; RHB, 1992/1999), pp. 307-31
a Brakel (1635-1711) was a contemporary of Voet and Witsius and a major representative of the Dutch Further Reformation.
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On a Hylemorphist View of the Soul
See also ‘On Hylemorphism’ at ‘Man, the Image of God’.
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1600’s
Perkins, William – sect. 1, ‘The Body / Soul Relationship’ in The Whole Treatise of the Cases of Conscience… (d. 1602; Cambridge: Legat, 1606), bk. 1, ch. 9
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2000’s
Feser, Edward – ‘The Soul’ in ch. 4, ‘Psychology’ in Aquinas: a Beginner´s Guide (OneWorld, 2010), pp. 114-22
Hylemorphism means “matter-form” and refers to Aristotelian categories that things are metaphysically made of a combination of matter and form. This was by and large the view of Reformed Orthodoxy before the winds of change with Cartesianism rose, especially, in the late-1600’s.
The soul is simply the form of a human person. Feser, an analytical Thomist, elaborates on what this entails.
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On the Intellect & Will
Articles
1500’s
Vermigli, Peter Martyr – ‘Of Man’s Election, or Making of Choice’ in 2. ‘Of Free-Will’ in The Common Places… (London: Henrie Denham et al., 1583), pt. 2, p. 293-97
Viret, Pierre – A Christian Instruction… (London: Veale, 1573), A Familiar Exposition of the Principal Points of the Catechism, and of the Christian Doctrine, made in Form of Dialogue, 12th Dialogue
How that the True Knowledge of God comprehends both the understanding and the will
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1600’s
Leigh, Edward – A System or Body of Divinity… (London, A.M., 1654), bk. 7
15. Of the Sanctification of the Will 542
16. Of the Sanctification of the Conscience 544
17. Sanctification of the Memory 546
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1800’s
Alexander, Archibald – 17. ‘On the Will’ in God, Creation & Human Rebellion: Lecture Notes of Archibald Alexander from the Hand of Charles Hodge (1818; RBO, 2023), pp. 193-214
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2000’s
Feser, Edward – ‘Intellect & Will’ in ch. 4, ‘Psychology’ in Aquinas: a Beginner´s Guide (OneWorld, 2010), pp. 122-29
Feser is an analytical Thomist.
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Quote
1600’s
Petrus van Mastricht
Theoretical Practical Theology (RHB), vol. 3, bk. 4, ch. 4, ‘The Penalty & State of Sin’, section 10, p. 526
“Therefore choice, arbitrium (an excessively proud term, in Greek αὐτεξούσιον), naturally considered, is the faculty of intellect and will by which we do what we want, by preceding counsel and judgment, such that we are not determined by any other created cause.
It pertains to the intellect and will in such a way that the intellect judges and shows what should be done, but the will commands what is shown and judged, and thus at root it has reference to the intellect, but formally it has reference to the will. This certainly implies some indifference, in a divided sense, as they say, by which, with the consideration of the divine decree and predetermination set aside, man is indifferent at least by nature to acting or not acting; yet he is not indifferent in a composite sense, with regard to the divine decree and its predetermining providence, but is already determined virtually to one or the other; much less does choice consist in indifference itself. For in this way neither God, nor angel, nor any man, regenerate or unregenerate, would possess free choice, and consequently free choice would be a non-entity. For God is determined to good…
And so arbitrium, choice, is more correctly said to consist in the power of acting from counsel and προαίρεσις, free choosing, or what is the same thing, in rational complacency.”
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Latin Articles
1600’s
Voet, Gisbert
Syllabus of Theological Problems (Utrecht, 1643), pt. 1, section 1, tract 3 Abbr.
On the Intellect, or the Human Mind
Of the [Human] Will
50. ‘A Syllabus of Questions on the Whole Decalogue’ in Select Theological Disputations (Amsterdam: Jansson, 1667), vol. 4
‘On the Intellect’ 764
‘On the Will’ 764
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On Sense, the Affections, Power of Locomotion & Habit
Articles
1500’s
Vermigli, Peter Martyr – The Common Places… (London: Henrie Denham et al., 1583), pt. 2, ‘The Sixth Precept’
‘Of Affects, or Affections in General, out of the Commentaries upon Aristotle’s Ethics’ 405
‘Of Some of the Affects Severally’ 411
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1600’s
Leigh, Edward – A System or Body of Divinity… (London, A.M., 1654), bk. 7
18. Sanctification of the Affections 546
19. Of the Particular Affections 549
20. I. Of the Simple Affections 551-55
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25. II. Of Fear & Some Mixed Affections 571
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ch. 27. Of the Sensitive Appetite 579-80
Turretin, Francis – 4. ‘What is the will and the free will of angels? Do affections belong to them?’ in Institutes of Elenctic Theology, tr. George M. Giger, ed. James Dennison Jr. (1679–1685; P&R, 1992), vol. 1, 7th Topic, pp. 546-47
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William Pemble
Vindiciæ gratiæ. = A Plea for Grace, More especially the Grace of Faith… (London: 1627), pp. 125-26
“For affections or passions in man, they are of two sorts:
1. Sensual belonging to the sensitive appetite and directed by the fantasy: these are common to brute beasts with us, and arise from one like temper and constitution in both. The object of these is all natural good or evil.
2. Rational, appertaining to the reasonable appetite or will, and guided by the understanding. These are proper to man, and they have their original from the substance of the reasonable soul, in which they always remain, not only when it is in the body, but even when tis severed from it. For fear, hope, love, hatred, joy, grief, etc. are in the damned and blessed spirits as well as living men. The object of these properly human passions is all moral and spiritual good or evil. I need not among so many learned, artists stand curiously upon the distinction of these two sorts of passions in man: the identity of names in both sorts has caused some confusion, but in reason the diversity of their nature is evident. Wherefore I go on to see what is meant by excitation or stirring up of the affections: whereby we can understand nothing else but their right and orderly motions about their proper objects. As in the particulars, sensual passions are then duly excited when they are moved about any natural good or evil, according to the instinct of nature in brute beasts and according to the same instinct of nature in man, but guided and moderated by right reason. Reasonable affections are then duly stirred up when their motions about all spiritual and moral good or evil are conformable to the quality of the object affected and to the rules of a rightly informed understanding.”
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Historical
In the Post-Reformation
Jo, Hyeong Rae – Sensing the Divine: John Owen’s Anthroposensitive Theology & Affective Spirituality PhD diss. (Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 2023)
“John Owen (1616–83), a prominent English Reformed theologian, emphasized the importance of affections in Christian life… Affections, as opposed to turbulent emotions, are regarded as a more delicate inclination and disposition of the soul… Owen’s theology is built in a theocentric way, with a particular emphasis on the experiential and pastoral aspects. This research investigates how Owen used the concept of affections to construct his anthroposensitive theology.”
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Latin Articles
1600’s
Voet, Gisbert
Syllabus of Theological Problems (Utrecht, 1643), pt. 1, section 1, tract 3 Abbr.
On Appetite in General
On Sensation
50. ‘A Syllabus of Questions on the Whole Decalogue’ in Select Theological Disputations (Amsterdam: Jansson, 1667), vol. 4
‘On Sense, or the Sensitive Power’ 765
‘On the Appetite, or the Affections’ 765
‘On Locomotion’ 766
‘On Habit’ 766
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On the Immortality of the Soul
Articles
1500’s
Calvin, John – ‘On the State of Souls After Death’ in The Two Last Articles in A Short Instruction for to Arm All Good Christian People against the Pestiferous Errors of the Common Sect of Anabaptists (London: Daye, 1549), no page numbers
Some Anabaptists held the soul ceases to exist after death (until it comes back into being at the Resurrection) or that it continues to exist, but sleeps till the Resurrection. Calvin refutes both views.
Ursinus, Zachary – 9. Whether the soul be immortal in The Sum of Christian Religion: Delivered… in his Lectures upon the Catechism… tr. Henrie Parrie (d. 1583; Oxford, 1587), Of the Resurrection of the Flesh
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1600’s
Rutherford, Samuel – ch. 20, section 1, ‘Whether souls are immortal? We affirm against the doubting Remonstrants and Socinians.’ in Rutherford’s Examination of Arminianism: the Tables of Contents with Excerpts from Every Chapter tr. Charles Johnson & Travis Fentiman (1638-1642; 1668; RBO, 2019), pp. 135-36
Turretin, Francis – 14. ‘Is the soul immortal in virtue of its intrinsic construction? We affirm.’ in Institutes of Elenctic Theology, tr. George M. Giger, ed. James Dennison Jr. (1679–1685; P&R, 1992), vol. 1, 5th Topic, p. 482-88
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1700’s
à Brakel, Wilhelmus – ‘The Immortality of the Soul After Death’ in ch. 100, ‘Concerning Death & the State of the Soul After Death’ in The Christian’s Reasonable Service, vol. 4 ed. Joel Beeke, tr. Bartel Elshout Buy (1700; RHB, 1992/1999), pp. 317-22
a Brakel (1635-1711) was a contemporary of Voet and Witsius and a major representative of the Dutch Further Reformation.
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Historical
Feser, Edward – ‘Immateriality & Immortality’ in ch. 4, ‘Psychology’ in Aquinas: a Beginner’s Guide (OneWorld, 2010), pp. 129-38 See especially pp. 135-38.
On Aquinas’s view that the soul is immortal by nature, which was the typical Romanist view. That it was not immortal by nauture, but by God’s ordination, was a common protestant view.
Goudriaan, Aza – in Reformed Orthodoxy & Philosophy, 1625-1750
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Latin
1600’s
Voet, Gisbert – Of the Immortality of the Soul in Syllabus of Theological Problems (Utrecht, 1643), pt. 1, section 2, tract 6 Abbr.
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1700’s
Roy, Albert – The 4th Theological Exercise, which is on the Immortality of the Human Soul (Bern, 1713)
Roy (1663-1733) was a reformed professor of Hebrew, Catechesis and Theology at Lausanne.
Hartmann, Johann Adolph – A Philosophical Disputation in which is Demonstrated that the Human Soul is Not Able to be Destroyed (Marburg, 1739) 28 pp.
Hartmann (1680-1744) was a reformed professor of philosophy, history and rhetoric at Kassel and Marburg. He was a Romanist previous to 1715.
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Latin
1500’s
Löw, Georg
Philosophical Theses on the Soul & its Functions in an Animated Body, so far as in it the Principle & Cause of Life Exist (Basil, 1596)
Theses on the Human Soul (Basil: 1600)
Low (1565-1610)
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1600’s
Kyper, Albert – Anthropology: the Nature of the Contents of the Human Body & the Soul, & the Powers Respecting the Circular Motion of the Blood Explained, to which is added a Response of the Same Author to the Pseudo-Apology of V.F. Plempius (1660) 665 pp. ToC
Kyper (1614-1655) was a professor of medicine at Leiden.
Voet, Gisbert – Syllabus of Theological Problems (Utrecht, 1643), pt. 1, section 1, tract 3 Abbr.
Of the Spirit
On the Powers or Faculties of the Soul
de Vries (1648-1705) was a reformed, Voetian, professor of philosophy and theology at Utrecht.
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